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quantum constant - ترجمة إلى العربية
![Occupation of Landau levels in a magnetic field neglecting the spin splitting, showing how the [[Fermi level]] moves to maintain a constant density of electrons. The fields are in the ratio <math>2:3:4</math> and give <math>\nu=4,\frac{8}{3}</math> and <math>2</math>.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/NivelesLandausinspin.jpg?width=200 "Occupation of Landau levels in a magnetic field neglecting the spin splitting, showing how the [[Fermi level]] moves to maintain a constant density of electrons. The fields are in the ratio <math>2:3:4</math> and give <math>\nu=4,\frac{8}{3}</math> and <math>2</math>.")
![resonant frequencies]] in acoustics.)](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Atomic-orbital-clouds spd m0.png?width=200 "resonant frequencies]] in acoustics.)")
![Position space probability density of a Gaussian [[wave packet]] moving in one dimension in free space](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Guassian Dispersion.gif?width=200 "Position space probability density of a Gaussian [[wave packet]] moving in one dimension in free space")
![[[Max Planck]] is considered the father of the quantum theory.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Max Planck (1858-1947).jpg?width=200 "[[Max Planck]] is considered the father of the quantum theory.")
![spring]]) in [[classical mechanics]] (A-B) and quantum mechanics (C-H). In quantum mechanics, the position of the ball is represented by a [[wave]] (called the [[wave function]]), with the [[real part]] shown in blue and the [[imaginary part]] shown in red. Some of the trajectories (such as C, D, E, and F) are [[standing wave]]s (or "[[stationary state]]s"). Each standing-wave frequency is proportional to a possible [[energy level]] of the oscillator. This "energy quantization" does not occur in classical physics, where the oscillator can have ''any'' energy.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/QuantumHarmonicOscillatorAnimation.gif?width=200 "spring]]) in [[classical mechanics]] (A-B) and quantum mechanics (C-H). In quantum mechanics, the position of the ball is represented by a [[wave]] (called the [[wave function]]), with the [[real part]] shown in blue and the [[imaginary part]] shown in red. Some of the trajectories (such as C, D, E, and F) are [[standing wave]]s (or \"[[stationary state]]s\"). Each standing-wave frequency is proportional to a possible [[energy level]] of the oscillator. This \"energy quantization\" does not occur in classical physics, where the oscillator can have ''any'' energy.")
![The 1927 [[Solvay Conference]] in [[Brussels]] was the fifth world physics conference.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Solvay conference 1927.jpg?width=200 "The 1927 [[Solvay Conference]] in [[Brussels]] was the fifth world physics conference.")
![Diagram of torsion balance used in the [[Cavendish experiment]] performed by [[Henry Cavendish]] in 1798, to measure G, with the help of a pulley, large balls hung from a frame were rotated into position next to the small balls.](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Cavendish Torsion Balance Diagram.svg?width=200 "Diagram of torsion balance used in the [[Cavendish experiment]] performed by [[Henry Cavendish]] in 1798, to measure G, with the help of a pulley, large balls hung from a frame were rotated into position next to the small balls.")
تعريف
ويكيبيديا
The quantum Hall effect (or integer quantum Hall effect) is a quantized version of the Hall effect which is observed in two-dimensional electron systems subjected to low temperatures and strong magnetic fields, in which the Hall resistance Rxy exhibits steps that take on the quantized values
where VHall is the Hall voltage, Ichannel is the channel current, e is the elementary charge and h is Planck's constant. The divisor ν can take on either integer (ν = 1, 2, 3,...) or fractional (ν = 1/3, 2/5, 3/7, 2/3, 3/5, 1/5, 2/9, 3/13, 5/2, 12/5,...) values. Here, ν is roughly but not exactly equal to the filling factor of Landau levels. The quantum Hall effect is referred to as the integer or fractional quantum Hall effect depending on whether ν is an integer or fraction, respectively.
The striking feature of the integer quantum Hall effect is the persistence of the quantization (i.e. the Hall plateau) as the electron density is varied. Since the electron density remains constant when the Fermi level is in a clean spectral gap, this situation corresponds to one where the Fermi level is an energy with a finite density of states, though these states are localized (see Anderson localization).
The fractional quantum Hall effect is more complicated and still considered an open research problem. Its existence relies fundamentally on electron–electron interactions. In 1988, it was proposed that there was quantum Hall effect without Landau levels. This quantum Hall effect is referred to as the quantum anomalous Hall (QAH) effect. There is also a new concept of the quantum spin Hall effect which is an analogue of the quantum Hall effect, where spin currents flow instead of charge currents.
